Methods of making non-covalently bonded carbon-titania nanocomposite thin films and applications of the same

ABSTRACT

In one aspect of the invention, a dye sensitized solar cell has a counter-electrode including carbon-titania nanocomposite thin films made by forming a carbon-based ink; forming a titania (TiO 2 ) solution; blade-coating a mechanical mixture of the carbon-based ink and the titania solution onto a substrate; and annealing the blade-coated substrate at a first temperature for a first period of time to obtain the carbon-based titania nanocomposite thin films. In certain embodiments, the carbon-based titania nanocomposite thin films may include solvent-exfoliated graphene titania (SEG-TiO 2 ) nanocomposite thin films, or single walled carbon nanotube titania (SWCNT-TiO 2 ) nanocomposite thin films.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED PATENT APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional application of and claims the benefitof U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/745,092, filed Jan. 18, 2013,entitled “METHODS OF MAKING NON-COVALENTLY BONDED CARBON-TITANIANANOCOMPOSITE THIN FILMS AND APPLICATIONS OF THE SAME,” by Yu TengLiang, Baiju Vijayan, Kimberly A. Gray and Mark C. Hersam, which isallowed and claims priority to and the benefit of, pursuant to 35 U.S.C.§119(e), U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 61/588,059, filedJan. 18, 2012, entitled “SOLVENT-EXFOLIATED GRAPHENE-TITANIANANOCOMPOSITE PHOTOCATALYSTS AND METHODS OF MAKING SAME,” by Yu TengLiang, Baiju Vijayan, Kimberly A. Gray and Mark C. Hersam, which areincorporated herein in their entireties by reference.

Some references, which may include patents, patent applications andvarious publications, are cited and discussed in the description of thisinvention. The citation and/or discussion of such references is providedmerely to clarify the description of the present invention and is not anadmission that any such reference is “prior art” to the inventiondescribed herein. All references cited and discussed in thisspecification are incorporated herein by reference in their entiretiesand to the same extent as if each reference was individuallyincorporated by reference. In terms of notation, hereinafter,superscript ^(“n”) represents the nth reference cited in the referencelist. For example, superscript ²⁹ represents the 29th reference cited inthe reference list, namely, Ostojic, G. N.; Liang, Y. T.; Hersam, M. C.Nanotechnology 2009, 20, 434019.

STATEMENT AS TO RIGHTS UNDER FEDERALLY-SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was made with government support under DE-FG02-03ER15457awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rightsin the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to carbon-titaniananocomposites, and more particularly to carbon-titania nanocompositethin films with improved photoactivities, such as graphene-titania orcarbon nanotube-titania nanocomposite thin films, and applications ofthe same.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The photocatalytic activity of wide bandgap semiconductors has been thesubject of numerous studies due to their ability to simultaneouslyharvest solar energy and drive chemical reactions via photoexcitedcharge carriers and activated electronic states.¹⁻³ Among thesematerials, titanium dioxide (TiO₂), also known as titania, isparticularly noteworthy because of its robust performance, nontoxicity,and chemical stability. Numerous photocatalytic applications for TiO₂have been proposed including liquid and gas phase organic contaminantdegradation, water photolysis, and carbon dioxide (CO₂) reduction.¹⁻⁴ Apopular pathway for enhancing photocatalytic activity is to exploredifferent TiO₂ formulations including mixtures of its two polymorphs,anatase and rutile. While anatase typically exhibits higherphotocatalytic activity than rutile, precise mixtures of both phasesdisplay even better performance. For example, the most widely studiedTiO₂ formulation is Degussa P25 TiO₂ (P25), which at 80% anatase and 20%rutile, produces novel electronic states at anatase-rutile junctionsthat result in enhanced charge carrier separation and reducedelectron-hole recombination.^(2,5)

More recently, further enhancements to TiO₂ photocatalytic activity havebeen demonstrated by incorporating carbon nanomaterials to formcarbon-TiO₂ nanocomposite photocatalysts. In particular, carbonnanotubes (CNTs) and graphene, which are cylindrical and planar forms ofsp² hybridized carbon, respectively, have been shown to enhancecatalysis^(6,7) due to their large specific surface areas, extraordinaryelectronic mobility,⁸ and molecular stability.⁹ In particular, previousstudies have demonstrated the enhanced photo-oxidative degradation oforganic contaminants for both CNT-based and graphene-based TiO₂nanocomposites.^(6,7,10-12) In these cases, the improved reactivity wasattributed to the extended optical absorption, resulting from surfaceimpurity doping, and increased lifetimes of the TiO₂ confined holes, dueto the injection of photoexcited electrons into the carbonnanomaterial.^(6,10) However, since these photo-oxidative reactionsoccur primarily on the unmodified TiO₂ surface, few discernabledifferences have been reported between nanocomposites based on differentcarbon polymorphs.¹¹

Recent advances in the solution-phase isolation of graphene fromgraphite¹³⁻¹⁸ have motivated its study and use in photocatalyticnanocomposites. These solution-phase methods can be classified in twoqualitatively different categories. The first and most commonly usedstrategy involves the covalent modification of graphite via acidictreatments to form an intermediary product that is frequently referredto as graphene oxide (GO). The GO nanoplatelets are then reduced throughadditional thermal,¹⁹ optical,^(20,21) or chemical means¹⁵ thatpartially restore sp² hybridization to yield reduced graphene oxide(RGO).¹⁶ The second pathway employs ultrasonic energy to directlyexfoliate graphite in suitable solvents.^(17,18) Sedimentation steps arethen utilized to isolate the thinnest platelets to yieldsolvent-exfoliated graphene (SEG) dispersions. Recent studies haveuncovered significant structural and chemical defects that distinguishRGO and SEG from both the ideal graphene crystal and oneanother.^(18,22) Since these defects produce unique electronic^(23,24)and optical²⁵ states, they are likely to influence and perhaps evenenhance photocatalysis.²⁶

Further, recent developments in low-dimensional nanomaterial synthesishave enabled their incorporation and study in a broad range oftechnologies. In particular, single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) andgraphene, one and two-dimensional forms of sp² hybridized carbon,respectively, have been utilized in high-performance transistors withhigh on/off ratios and frequencies exceeding 100 GHz.³⁴⁻³⁶ Concurrently,materials chemists have developed techniques to manipulate the geometryand direct the assembly of low-dimensional inorganic nanocrystals.³⁷⁻⁴⁰By controlling their surface energies, highly monodisperse nanocrystalpopulations can be produced with tailored optoelectronic^(37,41), andcatalytic⁴² properties. While isolated nanomaterials in pristineconditions are suitable for fundamental studies, most applicationsrequire integration into composite structures and operation in ambientenvironments. Consequently, precise understanding and control ofnanomaterial surfaces and interfaces are needed to realize their fullpotential in practical settings.⁴³ For example, the transfer of grapheneonto flat boron nitride substrates results in increased electronmobility,⁴⁴ and the preferential growth of (001) surfaces enhances thephotoactivity of titania nanosheets (TiNS).^(42,45,46)

Due to its ability to degrade organic pollutants and produce chemicalfuels using radiant energy, photocatalysis represents an attractiveopportunity to utilize the unique optoelectronic properties and largespecific surface areas of low-dimensional nanomaterials.⁴⁷⁻⁶³ Inparticular, nanocarbon-titania (TiO₂) composites have been the subjectof extensive investigation due to their ability to increase reactivecharge carrier lifetimes and extend optical absorption into the visiblespectrum.⁵³⁻⁵⁸ Various composites have been produced from combinationsof TiO₂ with SWCNT, solvent exfoliated graphene (SEG), or reducedgraphene oxide (RGO).^(50-55,60,64-66) Recent work has shown thattitania composite photocatalysts derived from SEG, which have low carbondefect densities, outperform those derived from RGO, which have highcarbon defect densities, due to stronger optoelectronic coupling.⁵³However, the interfacial charge transfer interactions between TiO₂ anddifferent carbon nanomaterials are not completelyunderstood.^(53,57,59,60) The high photoactivity and 2D geometry ofrecently discovered titania nanosheets (TiNS) provides a uniqueopportunity to engineer higher catalytic efficiencies and understandnanomaterial coupling in carbon-TiO₂ nanocomposites.

Therefore, a heretofore unaddressed need exists in the art to addressthe aforementioned deficiencies and inadequacies.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect of the disclosure, a method of making non-covalentlybonded carbon-titania nanocomposite thin films includes: forming acarbon-based ink; forming a titania (TiO₂) solution; blade-coating amechanical mixture of the carbon-based ink and the titania solution ontoa substrate; and annealing the blade-coated substrate at a firsttemperature for a first period of time to obtain the carbon-basedtitania nanocomposite thin films. In certain embodiments, thecarbon-based ink may include a concentrated solvent-exfoliated graphene(SEG) ink, or a concentrated single walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) ink.

In one embodiment, the first temperature is about 350-450° C., and thefirst period of time is about 20-45 minutes.

In one embodiment, the carbon-based ink includes a concentrated SEG ink.In one embodiment, the forming of the concentrated SEG ink includes:adding a first amount of natural graphite to a second amount ofN,N-dimethylforamide (DMF) to form a first graphite solution; sonicatingthe first graphite solution at a first frequency for a second period oftime; centrifuging the sonicated first graphite solution for a thirdperiod of time at a first rotation speed to obtain a SEG supernatant;and disposing the SEG supernatant in ethyl-cellulose (EC) and terpineol,and evaporating the DMF in the SEG solution to form the concentrated SEGink. In one embodiment, the first amount is about 2-3 g, the secondamount is about 40-60 ml, the second period of time is about 2.5-3.5hours, the first frequency is about 30-50 kHz, the third period of timeis about 3-6 hours, and the first rotation speed is about 6000-9000 rpm.

In a further embodiment, the forming of the concentrated SEG inkincludes: adding natural graphite to an EC-ethanol solution to form asecond graphite solution; sonicating the second graphite solution at asecond frequency for a fourth period of time; centrifuging the sonicatedsecond graphite solution for a fifth period of time at a second rotationspeed to obtain a SEG supernatant; and disposing the SEG supernatant interpineol to perform solvent exchange and to form the concentrated SEGink. In one embodiment, the fourth period of time is about 2.5-3.5hours, the first frequency is about 30-50 kHz, the fifth period of timeis about 3-6 hours, and the second rotation speed is about 6000-9000rpm.

In one embodiment, the carbon-based ink includes a concentrated SWCNTink. In one embodiment, the forming of the concentrated SWCNT inkincludes: dispersing SWCNT in an EC-ethanol solution to form a SWCNTsolution; sonicating the SWCNT solution for a sixth period of time; anddisposing the sonicated SWCNT solution in terpineol to perform solventexchange and to obtain the concentrated SWCNT ink. In one embodiment,the sixth period of time is about 45-75 minutes.

In one embodiment, the titania solution includes a titanium dioxide P25ink.

In one embodiment, the titania solution includes a titania nanosheet(TiNS) ink. In one embodiment, the forming of the TiNS ink includes:mixing a seventh amount of titanium butoxide with an eighth amount ofhydrofluoric acid for a seventh period of time to form a mixed solution;heating the mixed solution at a fourth temperature for an eighth periodof time under hydrothermal conditions; and rinsing the heated mixedsolution to obtain the TiNS ink. In one embodiment, the seventh amountis about 15-25 ml, the eighth amount is about 2.5-3.2 ml, the seventhperiod of time is about 20-45 minutes, the fourth temperature is about175-225° C., and the eighth period of time is about 20-28 hours.

Another aspect of the disclosure relates to a method of makingsolvent-exfoliated graphene titania (SEG-TiO₂) nanocomposite thin films,including: adding a first amount of natural graphite to a second amountof N,N-dimethylforamide (DMF) to form a graphite solution; sonicatingthe graphite solution at about 30-50 kHz for about 2.5-3.5 hours;centrifuging the sonicated graphite solution for about 3-6 hours atabout 6000-9000 rpm to obtain a SEG supernatant; disposing the SEGsupernatant in ethyl-cellulose (EC) and terpineol, and evaporating theDMF in the SEG solution to form a concentrated SEG ink; forming atitania solution; blade-coating a mechanical mixture of the concentratedSEG ink and the titania solution onto a substrate; and annealing theblade-coated substrate at about 350-450° C. for about 20-45 minutes toobtain the SEG-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin films.

In one embodiment, the first amount is about 2-3 g, and the secondamount is about 40-60 ml.

In one embodiment, the titania solution includes a titanium dioxide P25ink.

In one embodiment, the titania solution comprises a titania nanosheet(TiNS) ink. In one embodiment, the forming of the TiNS ink includes:mixing a third amount of titanium butoxide with a fourth amount ofhydrofluoric acid for about 20-45 minutes to form a mixed solution;heating the mixed solution at about 175-225° C. for about 20-28 hoursunder hydrothermal conditions; and rinsing the heated mixed solution toobtain the TiNS ink. In one embodiment, the third amount is about 15-25ml, and the fourth amount is about 2.5-3.2 ml.

Another aspect of the disclosure relates to a method of making SEG-TiO₂nanocomposite thin films, including: adding a first amount of naturalgraphite to a second amount of an EC-ethanol solution to form a graphitesolution; sonicating the graphite solution at a predetermined frequencyfor a first period of time; centrifuging the sonicated graphite solutionfor a second period of time at a predetermined speed to obtain a SEGsupernatant; disposing the SEG supernatant in terpineol to performsolvent exchange and to form the concentrated SEG ink; forming a titaniasolution; blade-coating a mechanical mixture of the concentrated SEG inkand the titania solution onto a substrate; and annealing theblade-coated substrate at a predetermined temperature for a third periodof time to obtain the SEG-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin films.

In one embodiment, the first period of time is about 2.5-3.5 hours; thesecond period of time is about 3-6 hours; the third period of time isabout 20-45 minutes; the predetermined frequency is about 30-50 kHz; thepredetermined speed is about 6000-9000 rpm; and the predeterminedtemperature is about 350-450° C.

In one embodiment, the titania solution includes a titanium dioxide P25ink.

In one embodiment, the titania solution comprises a titania nanosheet(TiNS) ink. In one embodiment, the forming of the TiNS ink includes:mixing a third amount of titanium butoxide with a fourth amount ofhydrofluoric acid for about 20-45 minutes to form a mixed solution;heating the mixed solution at about 175-225° C. for about 20-28 hoursunder hydrothermal conditions; and rinsing the heated mixed solution toobtain the TiNS ink. In one embodiment, the third amount is about 15-25ml, and the fourth amount is about 2.5-3.2 ml.

In another aspect, a SEG-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin film is made by themethods as disclosed above.

In one aspect of the disclosure, a method of making single walled carbonnanotube titania (SWCNT-TiO₂) nanocomposite thin films includes:dispersing single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) in an ethyl-cellulose(EC)-ethanol solution to form a SWCNT solution; sonicating the SWCNTsolution for about 45-75 minutes; disposing the sonicated SWCNT solutionin terpineol to perform solvent exchange and to obtain the concentratedSWCNT ink; forming a titania solution; blade-coating a mechanicalmixture of the concentrated SWCNT ink and the titania solution onto asubstrate; and annealing the blade-coated substrate at about 350-450° C.for about 20-45 minutes to obtain the SWCNT-TiO₂ nanocomposite thinfilms.

In one embodiment, the titania solution comprises a TiNS ink. In oneembodiment, the forming of the TiNS ink includes: mixing a first amountof titanium butoxide with a second amount of hydrofluoric acid for about20-45 minutes to form a mixed solution; heating the mixed solution atabout 175-225° C. for about 20-28 hours under hydrothermal conditions;and rinsing the heated mixed solution to obtain the TiNS ink. In oneembodiment, the first amount is about 15-25 ml, and the second amount isabout 2.5-3.2 ml.

In yet a further aspect, a SWCNT-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin film is made bythe method as disclosed above.

Another aspect of the present invention relates to a dye sensitizedsolar cell, having a counter-electrode formed by the graphenenanocomposite thin films made by one of the methods as disclosed above.

These and other aspects of the present invention will become apparentfrom the following description of the preferred embodiment taken inconjunction with the following drawings, although variations andmodifications therein may be affected without departing from the spiritand scope of the novel concepts of the disclosure.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings illustrate one or more embodiments of theinvention and together with the written description, serve to explainthe principles of the invention. Wherever possible, the same referencenumbers are used throughout the drawings to refer to the same or likeelements of an embodiment.

FIG. 1 shows schematically characterization of solvent-reduced grapheneoxide (SRGO) and solvent-exfoliated graphene (SEG) according to one ormore embodiments of the disclosure, where (A) shows photographs ofgraphene oxide, SRGO, and SEG (from left to right) dispersions in DMF at0.01 mg/mL; (B) shows intensity-normalized Raman spectra of SEG and SRGOfilms annealed at 400° C. for 30 min in air; (C) shows sheet resistancesof SEG and SRGO thin films formed via vacuum filtration as a function ofmass density; and (D) shows optical absorbance coefficients for SEG andSRGO dispersions in DMF.

FIG. 2 shows schematically characterization of SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25nanocomposites according to one or more embodiments of the presentinvention, where (A) shows a scanning electron micrograph of an annealedSEG-P25 nanocomposite showing its highly porous and homogenousmicrostructure; (B) shows a scanning electron micrograph of an annealedSRGO-P25 nanocomposite showing TiO₂ nanoparticles both above and belowthe embedded SRGO nanoplatelet; (C) shows photoluminescence (PL) spectraof the PL quenching of P25 by SEG; and (D) shows PL spectra of the PLquenching of P25 by SRGO.

FIG. 3 shows photocatalytic activity of SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25nanocomposites according to one or more embodiments of the presentinvention, where (A) shows pseudo first-order CH₃CHO photo-oxidationrate constants for SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25 nanocomposites under ultraviolet(385 nm) and visible illumination; and (B) shows CO₂ photo-reduction forSEG-P25 and SRGO-P25 nanocomposites under ultraviolet (385 nm) andvisible illumination.

FIG. 4 shows schematically a photocatalytic mechanism for graphene-TiO₂nanocomposites according to one or more embodiments of the presentinvention.

FIG. 5 shows schematically scanning electron micrographs of annealedSWCNT-TiNS and SEG-TiNS nanocomposite thin films, and schematics of the1D-2D SWCNT-TiNS and (D) 2D-2D SEG-TiNS interfaces according to one ormore embodiments of the present invention, where (A) shows a scanningelectron micrograph of an annealed 1 weight % SWCNT-TiNS nanocomposite,(B) shows a scanning electron micrograph of an annealed 1 weight %SEG-TiNS nanocomposite thin films, (C) shows the 1D-2D SWCNT-TiNSinterfaces, and (D) shows the 2D-2D SEG-TiNS interfaces. The colorscheme for the atoms is: carbon (gray), oxygen (red), and titanium(blue).

FIG. 6 shows photoluminescence (PL) spectra of SWCNT-TiNS and SEG-TiNSthin films according to one or more embodiments of the presentinvention, where (A) shows the PL spectra of SWCNT-TiNS thin films, (B)shows PL spectra of SEG-TiNS thin films, and (C) shows peak intensitiesfor the direct and indirect bandgap transitions in SWCNT-based andSEG-based TiNS nanocomposite thin films.

FIG. 7 shows photocatalytic activity of SEG-TiNS and SWCNT-TiNSnanocomposites according to one or more embodiments of the presentinvention, where (A) shows pseudo first-order rate constants foracetaldehyde (CH₃COH) photo-oxidation under ultraviolet (365 nm) andvisible irradiation, and (B) shows carbon dioxide (CO₂) photo-reductionto CH₄ under ultraviolet (365 nm) and visible irradiation.

FIG. 8 shows the optical absorbance of SEG (left) and SRGO (right)nanoplatelets in DFM at five different concentrations according to oneor more embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 9 shows AFM images and line scans of SEG and SRGO nanoplateletsaccording to one or more embodiments of the present invention, where (A)shows an AFM image and two line scans of SEG nanoplatelets depositedfrom a diluted SEG ink after annealing at 400° C. for 30 min in air; and(B) shows an AFM image and two line scans of SRGO nanoplateletsdeposited from a diluted DMF.

FIG. 10 shows Raman spectra obtained for filtered GO and SRGOnanoplatelets before and after thermal reduction in DMF according to oneor more embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 11 shows a photograph of a vacuum filtered 1% SEG-P25 compositeexhibiting macroscopic fissure after drying on a 25 mm diameter aluminamembrane according to one or more embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 12 shows schematically the method of forming graphene-basednanocomposite thin films and the thin films formed according to one ormore embodiments of the present invention, where (A) shows the method offorming graphene-based nanocomposite thin films according to oneembodiment; (B) shows a series of SEG-P25 nanocomposite thin filmsranging from 0.27 weight % to 26 weight % SEG deposited on 2.54 cm×2.54cm glass slides; and (C) shows an analogous series of SRGO-P25 thinfilms ranging from 0.41 weight % to 1.65 weight % SEG.

FIG. 13 shows combined Raman spectra of annealed SEG, SEG-P25, SRGO andSRGO-P25 films according to one or more embodiments of the presentinvention, where (A) shows Raman spectra of annealed SEG and 1.09 weight% SEG-P25 films, and (B) shows Raman spectra of annealed SRGO and 1.65weight % SRGO-P25 films.

FIG. 14 shows emission spectra of light sources used in photocatalytictesting according to one or more embodiments of the present invention,where (A) shows an emission spectrum of the mercury vapor lamp used inphotocatalytic testing; and (B) shows an emission spectrum of thenatural daylight bulb used in photocatalytic testing.

FIG. 15 shows CH₃CHO photo-oxidation on SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25 thin filmsunder UV and visible exposures according to one or more embodiments ofthe present invention, where (A) shows CH₃CHO photo-oxidation on SEG-P25thin films at different compositions under UV exposure (left) andvisible exposure (right); and (B) shows CH₃CHO photo-oxidation onSRGO-P25 thin films at different compositions under UV exposure (left)and visible exposure (right).

FIG. 16 shows the standard curve for the gas chromatograph used todetermine CH₄ concentration within the reactor according to oneembodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 17 shows an atomic force micrograph and line scan of SWCNTsdeposited from a diluted SWCNT ink after annealing at 400° C. for 30minutes in air according to one embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 18 shows scanning electron micrographs of annealed SWCNT and SEGthin films and dark field transmission electron micrograph of TiNSaccording to one or more embodiments of the present invention, where (A)shows the annealed SWCNT thin films, (B) shows the annealed SEG thinfilms, and (C) shows the dark field transmission electron micrograph ofTiNS showing their 2D geometry.

FIG. 19 shows photographs of annealed TiNS nanocomposite thin films on2.54 cm×2.54 cm silica glass slides according to one or more embodimentsof the present invention, where (A) shows the annealed TiNSnanocomposite thin films ranging from 0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, and 100 weight %SEG (left to right) and (B) shows the annealed TiNS nanocomposite thinfilms ranging from 0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, and 100 weight % SWCNT (left toright).

FIG. 20 shows UV-vis-NIR absorbance spectra for annealed SWCNT-TiNS and(B) SEG-TiNS nanocomposite thin films at various compositions accordingto one or more embodiments of the present invention, where (A) shows theUV-vis-NIR absorbance spectra of the annealed SWCNT-TiNS nanocompositethin films, and (B) shows the UV-vis-NIR absorbance spectra of theannealed SEG-TiNS nanocomposite thin films.

FIG. 21 shows vertically offset average Raman spectra of annealed SWCNT,1 weight % SWCNT-TiNS nanocomposite, SEG, and 1 weight % SEG-TiNSnanocomposite thin films according to one or more embodiments of thepresent invention.

FIG. 22 shows vertically offset glancing angle X-ray diffraction (XRD)of annealed TiNS, 0.5 weight % SWCNT-TiNS nanocomposite, and 0.5 weight% SEG-TiNS nanocomposite thin films according to one or more embodimentsof the present invention.

FIG. 23 shows emission spectra of light sources used in photocatalytictesting according to one or more embodiments of the present invention,where (A) shows an emission spectrum of the ultraviolet mercury vaporlamp and (B) shows an emission spectrum of the visible natural daylightbulb used in photocatalytic testing.

FIG. 24 shows CH₃CHO photo-oxidation on SWCNT-TiNS and SEG-TiNS thinfilms under UV and visible exposures according to one or moreembodiments of the present invention, where (A) shows CH₃CHOphoto-oxidation on SWCNT-TiNS thin films at different compositions underUV exposure (left) and visible exposure (right); and (B) shows CH₃CHOphoto-oxidation on SEG-TiNS thin films at different compositions underUV exposure (left) and visible exposure (right).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention will now be described more fully hereinafter withreference to the accompanying drawings, in which exemplary embodimentsof the invention are shown. This invention may, however, be embodied inmany different forms and should not be construed as limited to theembodiments set forth herein. Rather, these embodiments are provided sothat this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fullyconvey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. Likereference numerals refer to like elements throughout.

DEFINITIONS

The terms used in this specification generally have their ordinarymeanings in the art, within the context of the invention, and in thespecific context where each term is used. Certain terms that are used todescribe the invention are discussed below, or elsewhere in thespecification, to provide additional guidance to the practitionerregarding the description of the invention. For convenience, certainterms may be highlighted, for example using italics and/or quotationmarks. The use of highlighting has no influence on the scope and meaningof a term; the scope and meaning of a term is the same, in the samecontext, whether or not it is highlighted. It will be appreciated thatsame thing can be said in more than one way. Consequently, alternativelanguage and synonyms may be used for any one or more of the termsdiscussed herein, nor is any special significance to be placed uponwhether or not a term is elaborated or discussed herein. Synonyms forcertain terms are provided. A recital of one or more synonyms does notexclude the use of other synonyms. The use of examples anywhere in thisspecification including examples of any terms discussed herein isillustrative only, and in no way limits the scope and meaning of theinvention or of any exemplified term. Likewise, the invention is notlimited to various embodiments given in this specification.

It will be understood that, as used in the description herein andthroughout the claims that follow, the meaning of “a”, “an”, and “the”includes plural reference unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.Also, it will be understood that when an element is referred to as being“on” another element, it can be directly on the other element orintervening elements may be present therebetween. In contrast, when anelement is referred to as being “directly on” another element, there areno intervening elements present. As used herein, the term “and/or”includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associatedlisted items.

It will be understood that, although the terms first, second, third etc.may be used herein to describe various elements, components, regions,layers and/or sections, these elements, components, regions, layersand/or sections should not be limited by these terms. These terms areonly used to distinguish one element, component, region, layer orsection from another element, component, region, layer or section. Thus,a first element, component, region, layer or section discussed belowcould be termed a second element, component, region, layer or sectionwithout departing from the teachings of the present invention.

Furthermore, relative terms, such as “lower” or “bottom” and “upper” or“top,” may be used herein to describe one element's relationship toanother element as illustrated in the Figures. It will be understoodthat relative terms are intended to encompass different orientations ofthe device in addition to the orientation depicted in the Figures. Forexample, if the device in one of the figures is turned over, elementsdescribed as being on the “lower” side of other elements would then beoriented on “upper” sides of the other elements. The exemplary term“lower”, can therefore, encompasses both an orientation of “lower” and“upper,” depending of the particular orientation of the figure.Similarly, if the device in one of the figures is turned over, elementsdescribed as “below” or “beneath” other elements would then be oriented“above” the other elements. The exemplary terms “below” or “beneath”can, therefore, encompass both an orientation of above and below.

It will be further understood that the terms “comprises” and/or“comprising,” or “includes” and/or “including” or “has” and/or “having”when used in this specification, specify the presence of statedfeatures, regions, integers, steps, operations, elements, and/orcomponents, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or moreother features, regions, integers, steps, operations, elements,components, and/or groups thereof.

Unless otherwise defined, all terms (including technical and scientificterms) used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by oneof ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. It will befurther understood that terms, such as those defined in commonly useddictionaries, should be interpreted as having a meaning that isconsistent with their meaning in the context of the relevant art and thepresent disclosure, and will not be interpreted in an idealized oroverly formal sense unless expressly so defined herein.

As used herein, “around”, “about” or “approximately” shall generallymean within 20 percent, preferably within 10 percent, and morepreferably within 5 percent of a given value or range. Numericalquantities given herein are approximate, meaning that the term “around”,“about” or “approximately” can be inferred if not expressly stated.

As used herein, the terms “comprising,” “including,” “carrying,”“having,” “containing,” “involving,” and the like are to be understoodto be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limited to.

As used herein, if any, the term “scanning electron microscope” or itsabbreviation “SEM” refers to a type of electron microscope that imagesthe sample surface by scanning it with a high-energy beam of electronsin a raster scan pattern. The electrons interact with the atoms thatmake up the sample producing signals that contain information about thesample's surface topography, composition and other properties such aselectrical conductivity.

As used herein, a “nanostructure” refers to an object of intermediatesize between molecular and microscopic (micrometer-sized) structures. Indescribing nanostructures, the sizes of the nanostructures refer to thenumber of dimensions on the nanoscale. For example, nanotexturedsurfaces have one dimension on the nanoscale, i.e., only the thicknessof the surface of an object is between 0.1 and 1000 nm. Sphere-likenanoparticles have three dimensions on the nanoscale, i.e., the particleis between 0.1 and 1000 nm in each spatial dimension. A list ofnanostructures includes, but not limited to, nanoparticle,nanocomposite, quantum dot, nanofilm, nanoshell, nanofiber, nanoring,nanorod, nanowire, nanotube, and so on.

Overview of the Invention

The present invention, in one aspect, relates to a method of makingnon-covalently bonded graphene-titania nanocomposite thin films withimproved photoactivities. Previous graphene-based compositephotocatalysts utilized reduced graphene oxide (RGO)^(1,2) produced viaan oxidation-reduction procedure that introduces large quantities ofirreversible structural and chemical defects.′ Furthermore, the effectsof these graphene defects on catalysis remained unknown due to thecomplexities associated with producing pristine graphene nanocomposites.For example, macroscopic cracking was observed after filtering atitanium dioxide (TiO₂) and graphene dispersion onto an anodizedaluminum oxide membrane. The pristine graphene-TiO₂ nanocompositesproduced according to one or more embodiments of the present inventionexhibited dramatically improved photoactivities over similar RGO-TiO₂films. This improved photocatalytic activity is useful for the improveddegradation of liquid and gaseous organic contaminants and theproduction of solar chemical fuels.

Another aspect of the disclosure relates to a method of makingsolvent-exfoliated graphene titania (SEG-TiO₂) nanocomposite thin films,including: adding a first amount of natural graphite to a second amountof N,N-dimethylforamide (DMF) to form a graphite solution; sonicatingthe graphite solution at about 30-50 kHz for about 2.5-3.5 hours;centrifuging the sonicated graphite solution for about 3-6 hours atabout 6000-9000 rpm to obtain a SEG supernatant; disposing the SEGsupernatant in ethyl-cellulose (EC) and terpineol, and evaporating theDMF in the SEG solution to form a concentrated SEG ink; forming atitania solution; blade-coating a mechanical mixture of the concentratedSEG ink and the titania solution onto a substrate; and annealing theblade-coated substrate at about 350-450° C. for about 20-45 minutes toobtain the SEG-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin films.

In one embodiment of the disclosure, novel SEG-TiO₂ nanocomposites andmethods of producing these novel SEG-TiO₂ nanocomposites are invented,which are then compared to previously available RGO-TiO₂ nanocompositesin an effort to elucidate the role of graphene and its defects in thephotocatalytic reduction of CO₂. Consistent with prior reports, we findthat RGO possesses significantly higher defect density than SEG.However, in contrast to conventional wisdom regarding the importance ofdefects in catalysis, the less defective SEG is shown to possess higherphotocatalytic activity than RGO for the reduction of CO₂ to CH₄, withup to an unexpected, surprising, seven-fold improvement compared to pureTiO₂ under visible illumination. Based on extensive characterization ofthe structural, electrical, and optical properties of SEG-TiO₂ andRGO-TiO₂, it is concluded that the improved electrical mobility of SEGfacilitates photo-reduction reactions by allowing photoexcited electronsto more effectively diffuse to reactive sites. Overall, among otherthings, this invention provides new chemical insight intonanocomposite-based photocatalysis that can inform ongoing efforts toharness solar energy for the conversion of greenhouse gases into usefulchemical fuels.

FIG. 1 shows schematically characterization of solvent-reduced grapheneoxide (SRGO) and solvent-exfoliated graphene (SEG) according to one ormore embodiments of the disclosure, where (A) shows photographs ofgraphene oxide, SRGO, and SEG (from left to right) dispersions in DMF at0.01 mg/ml; (B) shows intensity-normalized Raman spectra of SEG and SRGOfilms annealed at 400° C. for 30 min in air; (C) shows sheet resistancesof SEG and SRGO thin films formed via vacuum filtration as a function ofmass density; and (D) shows optical absorbance coefficients for SEG andSRGO dispersions in DMF.

In one or more embodiments of the present invention, SEG dispersionswere produced by adding 2.5 g of natural graphite to 50 ml ofN,N-dimethylforamide (DMF) to form a graphite solution, and performing a3-hour ultrasonic treatment to the graphite solution of the naturalgraphite in the DMF, followed by centrifugation of the sonicatedgraphite solution at 7500 rpm for 4.5 hour to remove the fastsedimenting graphite. The resulting SEG supernatant consists primarilyof few-layer graphene nanoplatelets with lateral dimensions ranging fromabout 50 nm to 750 nm.

In comparison, graphene oxide (GO) was produced via a modified Hummersmethod,²⁷ using the same natural graphite as the source material. Asshown in FIG. 1(A), thermal reduction process was then performed in DMFto produce solvent-reduced graphene oxide (SRGO) with lateral dimensionsranging from about 500 nm to 3 μm. The resulting SEG and SRGOnanoplatelets were characterized using Raman spectroscopy. Typical Ramanspectra for graphene films exhibit four primary peaks: the G band atabout 1590 cm⁻¹, 2D band at about 2700 cm⁻¹, and the disorder-associatedD and D′ bands at about 1350 cm⁻¹ and about 1620 cm⁻¹ respectivelyl¹⁵.Of particular note is the intensity ratio of the D and G bands,I(D)/I(G), which is a measure of the relative concentration of sp^(a)hybridized defects compared to the sp² hybridized graphene domains. Asshown in FIG. 1(B), the average I(D)/I(G) value for the annealed SEGfilms is 0.17, which is significantly lower than 0.82 for the annealedSRGO films, thus indicating the higher defect density of SRGO comparedto SEG.

The electrical and optical properties of SEG and SRGO were characterizedusing four-point probe sheet resistance measurements and UV-Vis-NIRoptical absorbance spectroscopy. Sheet resistance was assessed for bothSEG and SRGO films formed via vacuum filtration. As shown in FIG. 1(C),consistent with their higher defect density, sheet resistances for SRGOfilms were on average 2.4 times higher than SEG films at the same arealmass density. As shown in FIG. 1(D), spectrally resolved opticalabsorbance measurements reveal that SRGO closely follows SEG in thenear-infrared region but is slightly more transparent at ultraviolet andvisible wavelengths. In addition, a small optical absorbance feature isobserved for SRGO dispersions at about 350 nm. However, these subtledifferences between the SEG and SRGO optical characteristics areunlikely to result in significant differences between theirphotocatalytic properties.

Graphene nanocomposite synthesis typically employs covalent chemistry toattach inorganic nanoparticles onto the graphene surface.^(7,11,28)However, since covalently bound nanocomposites require either thepresence or introduction of defects, only those based on highlydefective SRGO nanoplatelets have been produced.²⁸ While vacuumfiltration offers one potential path towards the synthesis ofnon-covalently modified SEG composites,²⁹ the co-filtration of SEG andP25 yielded films with macroscopic fissures upon drying. Therefore, inone aspect, a novel scheme for producing SEG and SRGO nanocompositefilms is devised, using ethyl-cellulose (EC) as a stabilizing andfilm-forming polymer.¹³ Highly concentrated SEG and SRGO inks weregenerated by removing DMF in the presence of EC and terpineol. Atitanium oxide P25 ink (hereinafter the “P25 ink”) was also preparedfollowing a previously established protocol.³⁰ Mechanical mixtures ofthese inks were then blade coated onto 1 mm thick silica glasssubstrates and annealed at 400° C. for 30 min, which removescarbonaceous impurities to produce SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25 nanocompositethin films.

FIG. 2 shows schematically characterization of SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25nanocomposites according to one or more embodiments of the presentinvention, where (A) shows a scanning electron micrograph of an annealedSEG-P25 nanocomposite showing its highly porous and homogenousmicrostructure; (B) shows a scanning electron micrograph of an annealedSRGO-P25 nanocomposite showing TiO₂ nanoparticles both above and belowthe embedded SRGO nanoplatelet; (C) shows photoluminescence (PL) spectraof the PL quenching of P25 by SEG; and (D) shows PL spectra of the PLquenching of P25 by SRGO.

As shown in FIG. 2(A), the SEMs reveal the homogenous structure of thenanocomposite thin films generated by this process. The SEG-P25 film hasa porous network of SEG nanoplatelets decorated with P25 TiO₂ particlesthat are about 21 nm in average diameter. In comparison, for theSRGO-P25 films, the larger SRGO nanoplatelets are similarly embeddedinto the porous P25 network. As shown in FIG. 2(B), with the SEM, P25nanoparticles can be observed both above and below the wrinkled SRGOnanoplatelet due to its thinness and electron transparency.Photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy was then employed to follow thefates of photoexcited charge carriers in these films. Supra-bandgapirradiation of TiO₂ results in emission of photons at specificwavelengths associated with either direct bandgap, indirect bandgap(phonon-assisted), or defect mediated recombination in the TiO₂crystal.³¹ As shown in FIGS. 2(C) and 2(D), in both the SEG-P25 andSRGO-P25 nanocomposites, increased PL quenching is observed withincreased carbon content for the lower energy indirect bandgap and traplevel-mediated transitions. In contrast, emission at wavelengthsassociated with the more rapid direct bandgap transitions, at 345 and359 nm,³¹ were largely preserved.

FIG. 3 shows photocatalytic activity of SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25nanocomposites according to one or more embodiments of the presentinvention, where (A) shows pseudo first-order CH₃CHO photo-oxidationrate constants for SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25 nanocomposites under ultraviolet(385 nm) and visible illumination; and (B) shows CO₂ photo-reduction forSEG-P25 and SRGO-P25 nanocomposites under ultraviolet (385 nm) andvisible illumination.

The photocatalytic activity of the SEG and SRGO nanocomposites atvarious compositions were evaluated via acetaldehyde (CH₃CHO)photo-oxidation and CO₂ photo-reduction reactions. Pseudo first-orderdecay rate constants were calculated from CH₃CHO concentration curvesfollowing exposure to either ultraviolet (385 nm) or visible radiation.As shown in FIG. 3(A), enhanced CH₃CHO photo-oxidation was observed forSEG-P25 nanocomposites under both irradiation conditions. The largestimprovement in the rate of oxidation, 96% greater than P25, was achievedby the 0.27 weight % SEG-P25 nanocomposite under visible illumination.Under ultraviolet irradiation, the 0.55 weight % SEG-P25 filmdemonstrated the fastest rate of oxidation, which is 57% greater thanP25. In contrast, SRGO-P25 films did not exhibit enhancedphoto-oxidation under either irradiation condition.

As shown in FIG. 3(B), in the photo-reduction reactions, CO₂ was reducedin the presence of water to produce methane (CH₄) under the sameultraviolet (385 nm) and visible irradiation conditions. Since CO₂reduction is likely driven by the photoexcited electrons injected intothe SRGO or SEG nanoplatelets, this reaction is well-suited for studyingthe role of graphene and its defects in nanocomposite photocatalysis.The 0.27 weight % SEG-P25 nanocomposite exhibited the highestphoto-reductive activity under ultraviolet illumination, producing 4.5times more CH₄ than the P25 film. Under visible illumination, thehighest photo-reductive activity was achieved by the 0.55 weight %SEG-P25 nanocomposite, with a 7.2 times enhancement compared to pureP25. Alternatively, no improvement in the photo-reduction activity wasobserved for SRGO-P25 films under ultraviolet illumination, while amaximum enhancement of 2.3 fold was achieved for the 0.41 weight %SRGO-P25 nanocomposite under visible illumination.

Recent high resolution transmission electron microscopy images haveestablished the atomic-scale structure of RGO resulting from itsoxidation-reduction treatment. In this prior work, RGO nanoplateletswere found to be comprised of defect-free graphene regions of 3 to 6 nmin size interspersed by defective domains, consisting of disorderedcarbon networks, topological defects, ad-atoms, substitutions, andholes, covering about 40% of the surface.²² In contrast, SEGnanoplatelets exhibit relatively few basal plane defects.^(18,32) Thedefect characteristics for the SRGO and SEG nanoplatelets used in one ormore embodiments of the present invention are consistent with theseobservations as illustrated by the Raman spectra, as shown in FIG. 1(B),that show higher I(D)/I(G) ratios for SRGO compared to SEG. Althoughdefect sites are often more reactive and thus believed to be the driversof catalytic reactions,²⁴ this commonly invoked mechanism is apparentlynot dominant in graphene-TiO₂ photocatalysts as evidenced by the largerenhancement factor for the less defective SEG nanocomposites compared tothose based on SRGO, as shown in FIG. 3. These differences in defecttype and density are also reflected in the electrical properties of SEGand SRGO nanoplatelets. Since basal plane defects increase chargecarrier scattering, the electrical conductivity and mobility ofindividual RGO nanoplatelets have been found to lag behind pristinegraphene by 3 and 2 orders of magnitude respectively.³³ Consistent withthis previous study, the sheet resistance of our SRGO films exceeds thatof our SEG films, as shown in FIG. 1(C).

Another frequently cited mechanism in photocatalysis is the extension ofreactive electron and hole lifetimes via charge carrierseparation.^(7,11) In graphene-P25 photocatalysts, the first step incharge separation is achieved by injection of electrons into the carbonphase, resulting in reduced TiO₂ PL. As shown in FIGS. 2(C) and 2(D), acomparable amount of PL quenching was observed for SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25films at similar compositions, suggesting that electron injection intothe carbon phase is similar in these two cases and thus cannot fullyexplain the observed differences in photocatalytic activity, as shown inFIG. 3.

In addition to serving as a sink for photoexcited electrons, electronicinteractions between graphene and TiO₂ have been shown to extend theoptical absorption of TiO₂ to longer wavelengths, which implies enhancedphotocatalytic activity under visible illumination^(7,10,11) SinceSEG-P25 shows higher photocatalytic activity than SRGO-P25 under visibleillumination (as shown in FIG. 3), it appears that SEG has superiorelectronic coupling to TiO₂. In addition, the enhanced electricalmobility of SEG compared to SRGO implies a longer electronic mean freepath, which enables energetic electrons to diffuse farther from thegraphene-P25 interface, thus decreasing the likelihood of theirrecombination with holes on the TiO₂. In this manner, the lifetime ofholes on TiO₂ may be prolonged for SEG-P25 nanocomposites, which isconsistent with the observed enhancement in photo-oxidation of CH₃CHO bySEG, as shown in FIG. 3(A).

FIG. 4 shows schematically a photocatalytic mechanism for graphene-TiO₂nanocomposites according to one or more embodiments of the presentinvention. The color scheme for the atoms is: carbon (gray), hydrogen(white), oxygen (red), and titanium (blue). Upon illumination, thephotoexcited electron is injected into the graphene nanoplatelet,leaving behind a TiO₂ confined hole (green). Due to its lower density ofdefects, electrons in SEG are able to diffuse farther (depicted as theyellow pathway), thus sampling a larger surface area for adsorbed CO₂.

Since reduction reactions are driven by energetic electrons, theypresumably stand to benefit most significantly from the enhancedelectrical mobility of SEG. In particular, as shown in FIG. 4, thelonger mean free path for electrons on SEG implies that energeticelectrons will sample a larger area of the graphene surface, therebyincreasing the likelihood of interaction with adsorbed reactants.Consistent with this newly discovered mechanism in one or moreembodiments of the present invention, as shown in FIG. 3, thephoto-reduction of CO₂ was more significantly enhanced than thephoto-oxidation of CH₃CHO by SEG. While other factors may alsocontribute to this observed enhancement (e.g. differences in theadsorption/diffusion of reactants to/through the graphene-P25 films),the strong correlation between electrical mobility of the graphene andphotocatalytic activity of the nanocomposite suggests that futureefforts to improve carbon-TiO₂ photocatalysts may benefit from carefulconsideration of the electrical properties of the nanocarbon component.

In sum, among other things, the present invention provides a novelapproach to synthesize graphene-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin films withoutcovalent modification, which allows the production and study of novelgraphene-TiO₂ photocatalysts with low graphene defect densities. Byvarying the graphene processing method and nanocomposite loading, theoptimized graphene-TiO₂ nanocomposites unexpectedly yield approximatelytwo-fold and seven-fold improvements in the photo-oxidation of CH₃CHOand photo-reduction of CO₂, respectively, compared to pure TiO₂ undervisible illumination. In contrast to many catalytic systems, the lessdefective SEG resulted in larger photocatalytic enhancement factorscompared to SRGO, especially for the photo-reduction of CO₂ to CH₄.Following thorough characterization with scanning electron microscopy,optical absorbance and photoluminescence spectroscopy, and chargetransport measurements, a direct correlation was found between theelectrical mobility of the graphene component and photocatalyticactivity. Overall, the present invention provides novel mechanisticinsights into nanocomposite-based photocatalysis and is likely to informongoing efforts to exploit graphene-based materials in the production ofsolar fuels.

In another aspect of the disclosure, a method of making non-covalentlybonded carbon-based titania nanocomposite thin films includes: forming acarbon-based ink; forming a titania (TiO₂) solution; blade-coating amechanical mixture of the carbon-based ink and the titania solution ontoa substrate; and annealing the blade-coated substrate at a firsttemperature for a first period of time to obtain the carbon-basedtitania nanocomposite thin films. In certain embodiments, thecarbon-based ink may include a concentrated solvent-exfoliated graphene(SEG) ink, or a concentrated single walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) ink.This aspect relates to the method of making non-covalently bondedSEG-titania or SWCNT-titania nanocomposite thin films with low carbondefect densities. In contrast to existing RGO-based chemistries,⁵⁶ theresulting non-covalent coupling between the carbon and titaniacomponents preserves the well-defined nanomaterial surface chemistry,allowing for the direct study of interfacial effects on photocatalysis.In particular, SWCNT-TiNS and SEG-TiNS nanocomposites enable thecomparison of photo-oxidation and photo-reduction activities formaterials with 1D-2D and 2D-2D interfaces, respectively. Underultraviolet excitation, 2D-2D SEG-TiNS demonstrate superior CO₂photo-reduction activities compared to 1D-2D SWCNT-TiNS, highlightingthe stronger optoelectronic coupling between 2D-2D nanomaterials. Incontrast, both visible photo-oxidation and visible photo-reductionreactions are enhanced for SWCNT-TiNS, highlighting the effectiveness of1D SWCNTs as visible TiO₂ photosensitizers. While directly relevant toongoing efforts to improve the performance of nanocompositephotocatalysts, this study also provides fundamental insight into theeffects of nanomaterial dimensionality on interfacial charge transport.

FIG. 5 shows schematically scanning electron micrographs of annealedSWCNT-TiNS and SEG-TiNS nanocomposite thin films, and schematics of the1D-2D SWCNT-TiNS and (D) 2D-2D SEG-TiNS interfaces according to one ormore embodiments of the present invention, where (A) shows a scanningelectron micrograph of an annealed 1 weight % SWCNT-TiNS nanocomposite,(B) shows a scanning electron micrograph of an annealed 1 weight %SEG-TiNS nanocomposite thin films, (C) shows the 1D-2D SWCNT-TiNSinterfaces, and (D) shows the 2D-2D SEG-TiNS interfaces. The colorscheme for the atoms is: carbon (gray), oxygen (red), and titanium(blue).

The SWCNTs used here are 1D, with an average diameter of 1.4 nm andlengths ranging from 0.5 μm to 3 μm. In contrast, SEG is 2D, with anaverage thickness of approximately 2 nm, as measured by atomic forcemicroscopy (AFM),³⁴ and lateral dimensions ranging from 50 nm to 750 nm.TiNS are also 2D, with an average thickness of approximately 8 nm andlateral dimensions ranging from 50 nm to 130 nm, with the fraction of(001) TiO₂ anatase surface as high as 89%.⁴² The SEM of the SWCNT-TiNSand SEG-TiNS nanocomposites reveals their well-dispersed nanoporousstructures. As shown in FIG. 5(A), in the SWCNT-TiNS nanocomposite, the1D SWCNTs are suspended across numerous TiNS. In contrast, as shown inFIG. 5(B), the 2D SEG sheets are stacked against neighboring TiNS in theSEG-TiNS nanocomposite.

Raman spectroscopy was used to quantify the SWCNT and SEG defect densityfollowing film formation and annealing. Raman spectra were collected atfive different locations for each annealed SWCNT, SEG, and nanocompositefilm using a 514 nm laser Typical Raman spectra for SWCNT and SEGcontain three primary peaks: the G band at about 1590 cm⁻¹, 2D band atabout 2700 cm⁻¹, and the disorder-associated D band at about 1350cm⁻¹.⁶⁷ Of particular interest is the intensity ratio of the D and Gbands, I(D)/I(G), which is a measure of the relative concentration ofsp³ hybridized defects compared to the sp² hybridized graphitic domains.The average I(D)/I(G) for the annealed SEG film was 0.17, indicating arelatively low concentration of covalent defects compared to 0.82 forthat of covalently modified RGO.^(53,57) The average I(D)/I(G) for theannealed SWCNT film was even lower, at 0.02, due to the smaller fractionof edge defects in SWCNTs compared to SEG.

FIG. 6 shows photoluminescence (PL) spectra of SWCNT-TiNS and SEG-TiNSthin films according to one or more embodiments of the presentinvention, where (A) shows the PL spectra of SWCNT-TiNS thin films, (B)shows PL spectra of SEG-TiNS thin films, and (C) shows peak intensitiesfor the direct and indirect bandgap transitions in SWCNT-based andSEG-based TiNS nanocomposite thin films.

Photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy provides insight into optoelectronicproperties and charge transfer efficiencies across 1D-2D and 2D-2Dinterfaces. In PL spectroscopy, supra-bandgap illumination of TiNSgenerates excitons, which can be dissociated for catalysis,non-radiatively recombine, or radiatively recombine. In the case ofradiative recombination, emission can occur directly at the anatase TiO₂bandgap at about 380 nm or indirectly through defect andsurface-mediated recombination at longer wavelengths.⁵⁹ Due to thepreferential segregation of energetic electrons onto carbonnanomaterials, SWCNT-TiNS and SEG-TiNS composites exhibit increased PLquenching with increasing carbon content for both direct and indirecttransitions, as shown in FIGS. 6(A) and 6(B). However, SEG proved to bemore efficient at quenching TiNS PL compared to SWCNTs. For both directand indirect TiNS transitions, SEG achieves approximately the same levelof PL intensity quenching as twice its equivalent mass in SWCNTs, asshown in FIG. 6(C).

FIG. 7 shows photocatalytic activity of SEG-TiNS and SWCNT-TiNSnanocomposites according to one or more embodiments of the presentinvention, where (A) shows pseudo first-order rate constants foracetaldehyde (CH₃COH) photo-oxidation under ultraviolet (365 nm) andvisible irradiation, and (B) shows carbon dioxide (CO₂) photo-reductionto CH₄ under ultraviolet (365 nm) and visible irradiation.

SEG-TiNS and SWCNT-TiNS nanocomposites were assessed for theirphotocatalytic activity in both photo-oxidation and photo-reductionreactions. Pseudo-first-order decay rate constants for acetaldehyde(CH₃COH) photo-oxidation were calculated from CH₃COH decay curves undereither ultraviolet (365 nm) or visible (>380 nm) irradiation fornanocomposites at various compositions. For SEG-TiNS, improvement wasobserved for CH₃COH degradation under either irradiation conditioncompared to pure TiNS, as shown in FIG. 7(A). For SWCNT-TiNS, while noimprovement was observed under ultraviolet irradiation, a maximumimprovement of 31 in the CH₃COH decay rate constant was observed for the0.5% SWCNT-TiNS film under visible irradiation, as shown in FIG. 7(A).

In carbon dioxide (CO₂) photo-reduction, methane (CH₄) is produced froma water saturated CO₂ atmosphere under either ultraviolet (365 nm) orvisible (>380 nm) irradiation. The amount of CH₄ is measured using gaschromatographic separation and flame ionization detection (GC/FID) bothprior to and after 3 hours of illumination to determine thephoto-reduction activity for each film. In contrast to CH₃COHphoto-oxidation, marked improvements in CO₂ photo-reduction wereobserved for both SWCNT-TiNS and SEG-TiNS films. As shown in FIG. 7(B),under ultraviolet illumination, maximum improvement factors of 2 and 3.5were achieved for the 0.25% SWCNT-TiNS and 0.5% SEG-TiNS films,respectively, in comparison to pure TiNS. Under visible illumination,maximum improvement factors of 5.1 and 3.7 were achieved for the 0.25%SWCNT-TiNS and SEG-TiNS films, respectively, in comparison to pure TiNS,as shown in FIG. 7(B).

In contrast to recent work which showed covalently bound SWCNT-TiO₂ andRGO-TiO₂ nanocomposites to be similarly photoactive,⁵⁹ major differenceswere observed between the catalytic performance of SWCNT-TiNS andSEG-TiNS thin films. These photocatalytic differences can be attributedto the unique structure and optoelectronic properties of these 1D and 2Dnanomaterials. In composite form, 2D SEG shows more intimate electronicand physical coupling with 2D TiNS in comparison to 1D SWCNT, as shownin FIGS. 5-6. With this conformal 2D-2D interface, SEG can moreeffectively dissociate and inhibit the recombination of TiNSphotogenerated excitons compared to SWCNTs, resulting in superior TiNSPL quenching. Since reduction reactions utilize the energetic electronssegregated to the nanocarbon surface,^(53,54,66) CO₂ photo-reduction onSEG-TiNS is more significantly enhanced than SWCNT-TiNS. In particular,the most photoactive SEG-TiNS film produced 73.5% more CH₄ than the mostphotoactive SWCNT-TiNS film under ultraviolet irradiation, as shown inFIG. 7B.

Other factors that may contribute to the observed enhancements includean increase in the overall effective surface area and the porositydifference between SWCNT-TiNS and SEG-TiNS thin films. However, sincethe continued increase in surface area provided by SWCNT and SEG past0.5 weight % resulted in decreasing photoactivities (as shown in FIG.7), the former is unlikely to be a dominant factor. Moreover, anyporosity difference between SWCNT-TiNS and SEG-TiNS thin films isunlikely to explain the large discrepancy between their photocatalyticperformance since the pore structure of the most photoactive, low carboncompositions remain dominated by the TiNS network, as shown in FIGS.5(A) and 5(B).

Unlike CO₂ photo-reduction, CH₃COH photo-oxidation utilizes the holes onthe TiNS surface. In nanocomposite films, photo-oxidation reactions alsobenefit from extended reactive hole lifetimes and diminishedelectron/hole recombination that result from electron segregation ontothe carbon nanomaterials. However, as shown in FIG. 7, no enhancement inCH₃COH oxidation was observed for either SWCNT-TiNS or SEG-TiNS filmsunder ultraviolet illumination. In particular, SEG-TiNS films were lessactive than SWCNT-TiNS films despite the improved propensity of SEG toseparate electrons from the holes on TiNS. Consequently, the decreasedactivity of the SEG-TiNS films is likely due to the greater loss ofaccessible TiNS oxidative surface area in the more intimately coupled2D-2D SEG-TiNS composites compared to the 1D-2D SWCNT-TiNS composites.The net result is that, for both sets of films, any gains fromnanocomposite charge carrier separation were offset by the loss ofaccessible TiNS surface area, yielding a net loss in ultravioletphoto-oxidation activity.

Since anatase TiO₂ has a bandgap of about 3.25 eV,⁶⁹ stand-alone TiNSdisplayed very low photoactivity under the visible irradiationconditions of these experiments. This minor visible response can beattributed to the presence of vacancy and surface defects as well asfluorine-doping from the TiNS synthesis.^(69,70) These defects result inthe formation of intra-bandgap transition states, which are reflected inthe TiNS PL spectra, as shown in FIG. 6. In composites, TiO₂ visiblephotoactivity can be enhanced by either nanocarbon surface doping orphotosensitization.⁵⁴ The evaluation of these effects in compositephotocatalysis requires a more detailed understanding of the electronicstructures of 1D and 2D carbon nanomaterials. In particular, 2D grapheneis a zero bandgap semiconductor, while 1D SWCNTs can be eithersemiconducting or metallic depending on their chiral vector.As-synthesized SWCNT populations, such as those used in this work, aretypically one-third metallic and two-thirds semiconducting at roomtemperature.⁷¹ Therefore, for composite photocatalysis, SWCNTs canprovide enhanced TiO₂ photosensitization due to their increased opticalabsorption in the visible and infrared regions, resulting from 1D vanHove singularities, and longer semiconductor exciton lifetimes, comparedto graphene and metallic SWCNTs.^(71,72)

Accordingly, SWCNT-TiNS films demonstrated higher visible photocatalyticactivities in both reduction and oxidation reactions (as shown in FIG.7). These results suggest that, for non-covalently bound nanocarbon-TiNSfilms, photosensitization, where reactive charge carriers are generatedin the carbon nanomaterial and then transferred to TiNS, is the primaryenhancement mechanism for visible photocatalysis. Otherwise, TiNSnanocomposites based on the more intimately coupled SEG would haveyielded higher photoactivities through stronger surface doping. Thesuperior performance of these non-covalently bound SWCNT-TiNS compositesunder visible illumination contrasts with recent work on covalentlybound nanocarbon-TiO₂ composites in which no discernible difference wasobserved between SWCNT-TiO₂ and graphene-TiO₂ photoactivities.⁵⁹ Thisdisparity suggests that covalent modification in compositephotocatalysts results in both enhanced carbon TiO₂ surface doping andsuppressed carbon TiO₂ photosensitization by disrupting the pristineSWCNT electronic structure.^(57,73)

In sum, among other things, the present invention provides a novelapproach to synthesize non-covalently bonded SWCNT-TiNS and SEG-TiNSnanocomposites with low carbon defect densities, leading to improvedinsight into nanocomposite photocatalytic enhancement mechanisms. Due tothe 1D and 2D nature of these materials, SEG was shown to provide a moreintimate optoelectronic coupling with TiNS in comparison to SWCNT,resulting in considerably higher PL quenching and ultravioletphoto-reduction activities for SEG-TiNS films. Alternatively, SWCNT-TiNSfilms yielded higher visible photo-oxidation and visible photo-reductionactivities due to the ability of SWCNTs to sensitize TiNS to longerwavelength light. Overall, this work is likely to inform ongoing effortsto realize well-defined nanocomposite interfaces and exploit the uniqueoptoelectronic properties of low-dimensional carbon nanomaterials inphotochemical devices.

These and other aspects of the present invention are further describedbelow.

IMPLEMENTATIONS AND EXAMPLES OF THE INVENTION

Without intent to limit the scope of the invention, exemplaryinstruments, apparatus, methods and their related results according tothe embodiments of the present invention are given below. Note thattitles or subtitles may be used in the examples for convenience of areader, which in no way should limit the scope of the invention.Moreover, certain theories are proposed and disclosed herein; however,in no way they, whether they are right or wrong, should limit the scopeof the invention so long as the invention is practiced according to theinvention without regard for any particular theory or scheme of action.

Example One 1. Graphene Synthesis and Characterization 1.1 SolventExfoliated Graphene (SEG) Synthesis

In this example, 2.5 g of natural graphite (Asbury Carbon, 3061) wasadded to 50 ml of N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF, Mallinckrodt Analytical)and sonicated in a Bransonic 3510 tabletop ultrasonic cleaner for 3hours at 40 kHz and 100 W. These solutions were then combined into 250ml centrifuge tubes and sedimented in a large volume centrifuge (BeckmanCoulter Avanti J-26 XP Centrifuge) for 4.5 hours at 7500 rpm, or anaverage relative centrifugal force of 6804 g. The graphene concentrationof this SEG solution, 0.013 mg/ml, was determined by measuring thedifference in filter (Whatman Anodisc, 0.02 μm pore size) masses afterfiltering both 20 and 50 ml of the solution.

1.2 Graphene Oxide (GO) Synthesis

As a comparative example, GO was produced using a modified version ofHummers method. 5 g of natural graphite (Asbury Carbon, 3061) were addedto 115 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and cooled to 0° C. 15 gof potassium permanganate (KMnO₄, Aldrich) were then gradually added tothe solution in an ice bath. The temperature of the mixture was thenraised to 35° C. and stirred for 2 hours. 230 ml of deionized water(DI-H₂O) were slowly added to the solution while stirring. After 15minutes, an additional 700 ml of DI-H₂O were added to terminate theoxidation reaction. Finally, 12.5 ml of 30% hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)were added, producing a bright yellow solution of oxidized graphene andgraphite. A combination of filtration and centrifugation wassubsequently employed to remove the graphite, metallic ions, and excessacid. The solution was passed through a filter (Whatman Anodisc, 0.2 μmpore size) and rinsed with 1.5 L of 10% hydrochloric acid (HCl)-DI H₂O.The filtrate was then resuspended in 500 ml of DI-H₂O and centrifugedfor 1 hour at 7500 rpm to remove the unoxidized graphite. The GOcontaining supernatant was then collected via sedimentation at 7500 rpmfor 16 hours after which the pellet was redispersed in DI-H₂O after 30min of sonication. The sedimentation and sonication procedure wasrepeated three more times to yield a GO solution with about 6 pH. Afinal GO sedimentation step was then performed, and the GO nanoplateletswere redispersed in DMF.

1.3 Solvothermal Reduction of GO

Thermal reduction of GO was performed in DMF. A solution of 0.015 mg/mlGO-DMF was refluxed for 5 hours while stirring, yielding highly reducedGO precipitates in DMF. A homogenous solvent reduced graphene oxide(SRGO) solution was then produced following 90 minutes of sonication.The graphene concentration of this SRGO solution was determined bymeasuring the difference in filter masses after filtering both 17 ml and50 ml of this solution.

1.4 Optical Characterization of SEG and SRGO Nanoplatelets

FIG. 8 shows the optical absorbance of SEG (left) and SRGO (right)nanoplatelets in DFM at five different concentrations according to oneor more embodiments of the present invention.

Optical absorbance spectra of both SEG-DMF and SRGO-DMF solutions werecollected using a Varian Cary 5000 spectrophotometer. Five different SEGand SRGO solutions ranging from 2.5 to 15 μg/ml were used to determinethe absorbance coefficient of SEG and SRGO nanoplatelets in DMF. Asshown in FIG. 8, the SEG and SRGO absorbance within each set ofsolutions was found to be highly linear within this range ofconcentration with standard deviations of their absorbance coefficientsat less than 1%. The average absorbance coefficients between 300 and1300 nm are shown in FIG. 1(D).

1.5 Electronic Characterization of SEG and SRGO Nanoplatelets

Thin films of SEG and SRGO were formed via vacuum filtration ofdifferent stock solution volumes through 25 mm diameter alumina filters(Whatman Anodisc, 0.02 μm pore size). Their sheet resistances weremeasured using four-point probe measurements with the probes arranged ina linear configuration and 1 mm spacing, as shown in FIG. 1(C). A GOfilm with an areal density of 32 μg/mL was also measured, yielding asheet resistance of 4.38 GΩ/sq. The SRGO film at the same density showedover five orders of magnitude decrease in sheet resistance at 18.1kΩ/sq.

1.6 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) Characterization of SEG and SRGONanoplatelets

Graphene nanoplatelets from both the SEG ink and SRGO solution weredeposited onto 100 nm thick oxide silicon wafers for AFM imaging. Thewafers were first submerged in 2.5 mM 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane(ATPES) aqueous solution to functionalize the surface with a hydrophobicself-assembled monolayer for 30 minutes. The substrates were then rinsedwith DI-H₂O and dried under a stream of nitrogen. The graphene solutionswere then diluted to approximately 0.02 mg/ml in ethanol after whichdrops of each were placed onto the wafers for 10 minutes. The drops werethen blown off under a stream of N₂, and the wafers were rinsed withDI-H₂O. The SEG wafers were subsequently annealed for 30 minutes at 400°C. in air to remove solution residues.

FIG. 9 shows AFM images and line scans of SEG and SRGO nanoplateletsaccording to one or more embodiments of the present invention, where (A)shows an AFM image and two line scans of SEG nanoplatelets depositedfrom a diluted SEG ink after annealing at 400° C. for 30 min in air; and(B) shows an AFM image and two line scans of SRGO nanoplateletsdeposited from a diluted DMF.

All AFM images as shown in FIG. 9 were obtained with a ThermoMicroscopes Autoprobe CP-Research AFM in tapping mode using cantilever Bon MikroMasch NSC36/Cr—AuBS probes. As shown in FIG. 9, these 2 μm×2 μmimages were collected using identical scanning parameters, and two linescan nanoplatelet profiles are plotted from each image. As expected, SEGdispersions were composed of predominately few-layer graphenenanoplatelets with lateral dimensions ranging from about 50 nm to 750nm. SRGO dispersions were comprised of thin graphene nanoplatelets withgreater lateral extent, ranging from about 500 nm to several microns.

1.7 Raman Spectra of SEG and SRGO Nanoplatelets

FIG. 10 shows Raman spectra obtained for filtered GO and SRGOnanoplatelets before and after thermal reduction in DMF according to oneor more embodiments of the present invention.

The Raman spectra as shown in FIG. 10 were obtained for GO and SRGOnanoplatelets on alumina filters as well as SEG and SRGO nanoplateletsdeposited from ethyl-cellulose (EC) stabilized inks after annealing at400° C. for 30 minutes in air using a Renishaw inVia Raman microscopewith an excitation wavelength of 514 nm. Five spectra were obtained ondifferent areas of each film and combined to form a representative Ramanspectrum for the entire film. Consistent with previous GO reductionstudies, the intensity ratio of the D and G bands, I(D)/I(G), for the GObefore and after thermal reduction remained relatively unchanged, asshown in FIG. 10.^(15,33)

2. SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25 Characterization 2.1 Vacuum Co-Filtration of SEGand P25 TiO₂

FIG. 11 shows a photograph of a vacuum filtered 1% SEG-P25 compositeexhibiting macroscopic fissure after drying on a 25 mm diameter aluminamembrane according to one or more embodiments of the present invention.

Vacuum filtration was explored as a possible synthetic method forproducing SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25 composites. Individual dispersions of SEGand P25 TiO₂ were combined and filtered on an alumina membrane (WhatmanAnodisc, 0.02 μm pore size) to form a 1% SEG-P25 composite film.However, upon drying, the nanocomposite exhibited macroscopic cracks,rendering these films unsuitable for photocatalytic measurements thatrequire controlled light exposure, as shown in FIG. 11.

2.2 SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25 Nanocomposite Films

FIG. 12 shows schematically the method of forming graphene-basednanocomposite thin films and the thin films formed according to one ormore embodiments of the present invention, where (A) shows the method offorming graphene-based nanocomposite thin films according to oneembodiment; (B) shows a series of SEG-P25 nanocomposite thin filmsranging from 0.27 weight % to 26 weight % SEG deposited on 2.54 cm×2.54cm glass slides; and (C) shows an analogous series of SRGO-P25 thinfilms ranging from 0.41 weight % to 1.65 weight % SEG.

To circumvent the limitations of vacuum filtration, a general approachwas developed to deposit graphene nanocomposites using a film-formingpolymer. Due to its graphene stabilizing and film formingcapabilities,¹³ graphene dispersions were concentrated into 2 g of 10%w/v EC-terpineol solution to form SEG and SRGO inks after evaporatingDMF at reduced pressures. A separate Degussa P25 TiO₂ ink was producedfollowing a previously established protocol for producing highly porousTiO₂ electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells.³⁰ After blade coatingand annealing, as shown in FIG. 12, mechanical mixtures of these inksproduced homogenous nanocomposite thin films. The compositions of thesenanocomposite films were tuned by varying the fraction of graphene andP25 inks in the mechanical mixture.

Film thicknesses and optical extinction were measured prior to thephotocatalytic assessment of the SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25 nanocompositefilms. Profilometry was performed using a Veeco Dektak 150 SurfaceProfilometer with a 2.5 μm tip radius. Optical extinction was measuredusing a Varian Cary 5000 spectrophotometer, with the background from theglass slide subtracted from the measurements. The thickness andextinction values at both 385 nm and 550 nm for each film are summarizedin Table 1. The thickness and optical extinction at both ultraviolet(λ=385 nm) and visible (λ=550 nm) wavelengths for each photocatalyticthin film tested.

TABLE 1 thickness and extinction values at both 385 nm and 550 nm foreach film. Thickness Extinction at Extinction at Film (μm) 385 nm (Abs)550 nm (Abs) P25 7.6 3.13 1.04 0.27% SEG 8.5 3.08 0.81 0.55% SEG 7.23.63 1.04 1.09% SEG 7.7 3.81 1.17 2.15% SEG 6.45 3.77 1.48 SEG 0.3 1.81.26 0.41% SRGO 12.1 3.68 1.77 0.83% SRGO 11.6 4.45 2.47 1.65% SRGO 9.55.83 3.61 SRGO 0.4 1.47 1.03

2.3 Raman Characterization of SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25 Nanocomposites

FIG. 13 shows combined Raman spectra of annealed SEG, SEG-P25, SRGO andSRGO-P25 films according to one or more embodiments of the presentinvention, where (A) shows Raman spectra of annealed SEG and 1.09 weight% SEG-P25 films, and (B) shows Raman spectra of annealed SRGO and 1.65weight % SRGO-P25 films. As shown in FIG. 13, Raman spectroscopy wasalso performed on annealed SEG, SRGO, SEG-P25, and SRGO-P25 films. Thesespectra also showed minimal variation across the different filmlocations and were combined to form a representative Raman spectrum forthe entire film. The P25 TiO₂ contributes to the broad peak observedbetween 1200 cm⁻¹ and 2000 cm⁻¹ in the composite films.

2.4 Photoluminescence (PL)Spectra of SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25 Nanocomposites

PL spectra of nanocomposite films were collected using a commercialphoton counting ISS PC-1 Fluorimeter. All measurements were made using a295 nm excitation wavelength with the film oriented 22.5° orthogonal tothe incident light path towards the photon counting detector in anitrogen atmosphere. 2 mm excitation slits, 1 mm emission slits, andcross-polarizers were used to obtain optimal signal intensity andminimal Raleigh scattering.

3. SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25 Photocatalytic Measurements 3.1 PhotocatalyticTesting of SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25 Films

FIG. 14 shows emission spectra of light sources used in photocatalytictesting according to one or more embodiments of the present invention,where (A) shows an emission spectrum of the mercury vapor lamp used inphotocatalytic testing; and (B) shows an emission spectrum of thenatural daylight bulb used in photocatalytic testing.

Photocatalytic reactions were carried out using either UV light from amercury vapor lamp (100 W), with a wavelength of 365 nm and an energydensity of about 110 W/m², or a natural daylight bulb (60 W, HalcoLighting, Pure Lite, Neodymium), with wavelengths ranging from about 400to 850 nm and energy density of about 31 W/m². The emission spectra ofboth light sources are shown in FIG. 11.

FIG. 15 shows CH₃CHO photo-oxidation on SEG-P25 and SRGO-P25 thin filmsunder UV and visible exposures according to one or more embodiments ofthe present invention, where (A) shows CH₃CHO photo-oxidation on SEG-P25thin films at different compositions under UV exposure (left) andvisible exposure (right); and (B) shows CH₃CHO photo-oxidation onSRGO-P25 thin films at different compositions under UV exposure (left)and visible exposure (right).

Photo-oxidation reactions were performed in a 25 ml Teflon chamber witha quartz window 1 h after injecting 0.5 ml of acetaldehyde (CH₃CHO)vapor in the dark at room temperature. As shown in FIG. 15, a HewlettPackard 5890 gas chromatograph equipped with a flame ionizing detectorwas used to monitor the CH₃CHO concentrations.

FIG. 16 shows the standard curve for the gas chromatograph used todetermine CH₄ concentration within the reactor according to oneembodiment of the present invention. In the photo-reduction of carbondioxide (CO₂) to methane (CH₄), a 25 ml Teflon chamber was first purgedwith H₂O-saturated CO₂ (99.99%) at ambient temperatures for 1 hour. Thegas chromatograph was then used to monitor the CH₄ concentration. Asshown in FIG. 16, five 50 μL chromatography measurements were obtainedto determine the initial CH₄ concentration within the reactor using astandard curve. After the reactor was exposed to either UV or visibleradiation for 3 h, five more 50 μL chromatography measurements were thenobtained to determine the final CH₄ concentration. The photo-reductionactivity reported is the difference between the average final CH₄concentrations and average initial CH₄ concentrations.

3.2 Source of Carbon in the CH₄ Produced

Additional control experiments were performed to ensure that CO₂ wasindeed the source of carbon for the CH₄ produced. A 0.55 weight %SEG-P25 film was simultaneously purged with H₂O-saturated nitrogen (N₂)while irradiated with UV light within the reactor. The reactor was thenclosed off, and the concentration of CH₄ was measured after exposure toUV radiation for an additional 3 hour. A minimal amount of CH₄ (0.177μmol/m² hr) was detected. A 1-hour H₂O-saturated CO₂ purge was thenperformed, and the concentration of CH₄ evolved from the film wasmeasured. Following the N₂ purge, about 78% of the photoactivity (5.31out of 6.82 μmol/m² hr) was restored, indicating that the vast majorityof CH₄ was produced from gaseous CO₂ as opposed to other adventitioussources of carbon.

Many applications can be found for the present invention. For examples,chemically pristine graphene-nanoparticle composites deposited fromstable highly concentrated inks have a broad range of applications. Inparticular, the more homogenous atomic structure and superior electronicproperties of pristine graphene can enhance the performance of compositebiological and chemical sensors and electroactive tissue scaffolds. Inenergy applications, the superior catalytic reactivity of compositesbased on pristine graphene can enhance the photocatalytic degradation ofgas and liquid phase organic contaminants as well as the production ofsolar chemical fuels. Additionally, platinum-graphene nanocompositeshave potential to serve as an effective counter-electrode in dyesensitized solar cells. In energy storage applications, the outstandingchemical resistance and electronic conductivity of graphenenanocomposites will likely enable its use in next-generation lithium ionbatteries.

Example Two 1. Low Dimensional Nanomaterial Synthesis and Processing

Single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT, Carbon Solutions Inc, P2) weredispersed at 0.5 mg/ml in 1 weight % ethyl cellulose (EC)-ethanolsolutions using a Fisher Scientific sonic dismembrator 500 for 1 hour at35% power. Solvent exfoliated graphene (SEG) was produced from naturalgraphite flakes (Asbury Carbon, 3061) in 0.25 weight % EC-ethanolsolutions using a Bransonic 3510 tabletop ultrasonic cleaner for 3 hoursat 40 kHz and 100 W. This sonicated dispersion was then collected into250 mL centrifuge tubes and sedimented in a large volume centrifuge(Beckman Coulter Avanti J-26 XP Centrifuge) for 4.5 hours at 7500 rpmwith an average relative centrifugal force of 6804 g. The resultingsupernatant consisted primarily of single and few layer graphene sheetsat about 0.1 mg/ml, as measured using a Varian Cary 5000spectrophotometer and an absorbance coefficient of 3397 L/g·m at 550nm.⁷⁴

FIG. 17 shows an atomic force micrograph and line scan of SWCNTsdeposited from a diluted SWCNT ink after annealing at 400° C. for 30minutes in air according to one embodiment of the present invention.FIG. 18 shows scanning electron micrographs of annealed SWCNT and SEGthin films and dark field transmission electron micrograph of TiNSaccording to one or more embodiments of the present invention, where (A)shows the annealed SWCNT thin films, (B) shows the annealed SEG thinfilms, and (C) shows the dark field transmission electron micrograph ofTiNS showing their 2D geometry.

Concentrated SWCNT and SEG inks were produced following solvent exchangein terpineol,⁷⁵ yielding final ink concentrations of 1.18 mg/ml and 0.31mg/ml, respectively. SWCNT was deposited from the concentrated SWCNT inkonto a 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane (ATPES) functionalized 100 nm thickoxide silicon wafer for atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging. As shownin FIG. 17, the AFM and corresponding line scan point to awell-dispersed SWCNT ink, with both individually dispersed SWCNTs andsmall SWCNT bundles. Previously published work contains detailed AFManalysis for concentrated SEG inks.⁷⁵ Both SWCNT and SEG inks were thenblade coated onto 2.54 cm×2.54 cm glass slides. Following annealing at400° C. for 30 min in air, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of theresulting SWCNT and SEG thin films reveal their 1D and 2D structures, asshown in FIGS. 18(A) and 18(B).

Titania nanosheets (TiNS) were produced from 20 ml of titanium butoxide(97%, Aldrich Chemicals) and 2.8 ml of hydrofluoric acid (47%,Mallinckrodt Chemicals).⁷⁶ Following 30 minutes of mixing, the solutionwas placed in an oven for 24 hours at 200° C. under hydrothermalconditions. The TiNS precipitate was rinsed repeatedly with ethanol,deionized water, and 100 ml of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution until pH7 was achieved. As shown in FIG. 18(C), transmission electron microscopy(TEM) of these TiNS confirms their 2D structure. A 22.8 weight % TiNSink was then produced from the precipitate following an establishedprocedure.⁷⁷

The fraction of TiNS (001) surface was calculated based on theirSEM-measured lateral dimensions, which range from 50 nm to 130 nm, andthickness of 8 nm, as shown in FIG. 18(C). For the largest TiNS, thefraction of (001) surface area can be as high as 89%, matching previousreports:⁷⁶

$\frac{2 \cdot \left( {130\mspace{14mu} {nm}} \right)^{2}}{{2 \cdot \left( {130\mspace{14mu} {nm}} \right)^{2}} + {4 \cdot \left( {130\mspace{14mu} {{nm} \cdot 8}\mspace{14mu} {nm}} \right)^{2}}} = 0.89$

2. Nanocarbon-Titania Nanosheet Composite Thin Films

FIG. 19 shows photographs of annealed TiNS nanocomposite thin films on2.54 cm×2.54 cm silica glass slides according to one or more embodimentsof the present invention, where (A) shows the annealed TiNSnanocomposite thin films ranging from 0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, and 100 weight %SEG (left to right) and (B) shows the annealed TiNS nanocomposite thinfilms ranging from 0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, and 100 weight % SWCNT (left toright). To form mechanically robust nanocomposite thin films, as shownin FIG. 19, physical mixtures of SWCNT, SEG, and TiNS inks were bladecoated onto silica glass slides and annealed at 400° C. for 30 minutesin air. Each nanocomposite film was approximately 2 cm². Theirconsistent areas and transparent glass substrates facilitatephotocatalytic and optical extinction measurements.

FIG. 20 shows UV-vis-NIR absorbance spectra for annealed SWCNT-TiNS and(B) SEG-TiNS nanocomposite thin films at various compositions accordingto one or more embodiments of the present invention, where (A) shows theUV-vis-NIR absorbance spectra of the annealed SWCNT-TiNS nanocompositethin films, and (B) shows the UV-vis-NIR absorbance spectra of theannealed SEG-TiNS nanocomposite thin films. As shown in FIG. 20, opticalextinctions of nanocomposite thin films at each composition were thenmeasured using the Varian Cary 5000 spectrophotometer. Due to their 1Dgeometry, SWCNTs possess optoelectronic van Hove singularities thatprovide increased optical absorption in the visible and infraredspectrum. Correspondingly, SWCNT and SWCNT-TiNS nanocomposite thin filmsabsorbed more visible and infrared light compared to their analogous SEGand SEG-TiNS nanocomposite thin films. The spectral signature of theSWCNT film also confirms the heterogeneous electronic structure of theas-produced SWCNTs used in this study. In particular, the SWCNT S₂₂peaks at about 1000 nm, assigned to the semiconducting species, areapproximately twice the area of the SWCNT M₁₁ peaks at about 700 nm,assigned to the metallic species.⁷⁸

FIG. 21 shows vertically offset average Raman spectra of annealed SWCNT,1 weight % SWCNT-TiNS nanocomposite, SEG, and 1 weight % SEG-TiNSnanocomposite thin films according to one or more embodiments of thepresent invention. Raman spectra as shown in FIG. 21 were obtained forSWCNT, SWCNT-TiNS, SEG, and SEG-TiNS thin films deposited on silicaglass slides from EC-stabilized inks after annealing at 400° C. for 30minutes in air using a Renishaw inVia Raman microscope with anexcitation wavelength of 514 nm. As shown in FIG. 21, five spectra wereobtained on different areas of each film and combined to form arepresentative Raman spectrum for the entire film. The low intensityratios between the D and G bands, I(D)/I(G), for these annealed filmsindicate that few defects were introduced through nanocompositeformation. In particular, the SWCNT, SWCNT-TiNS, SEG, and SEG-TiNS filmshad averaged I(D)/I(G) of 0.02, 0.05, 0.17, and 0.43, respectively.

FIG. 22 shows vertically offset glancing angle X-ray diffraction (XRD)of annealed TiNS, 0.5 weight % SWCNT-TiNS nanocomposite, and 0.5 weight% SEG-TiNS nanocomposite thin films according to one or more embodimentsof the present invention. As shown in FIG. 22, glancing angle X-raydiffraction (XRD) was performed on TiNS, SWCNT-TiNS nanocomposite, andSEG-TiNS nanocomposite thin films. The resulting spectra were indexed toanatase titania (TiO₂),⁷⁶ showing that phase transformation did notoccur for any of the films during the 400° C. annealing process.

Photoluminescence (PL) spectra of nanocomposite thin films werecollected using a commercial photon counting ISS PC-1 Fluorimeter. Allmeasurements were made using a 285 nm excitation wavelength with thefilm oriented 22.5° orthogonal to the incident light path towards thephoton counting detector in a nitrogen atmosphere. 2 mm excitationslits, 1 mm emission slits, and cross-polarizers were used to obtainoptimal signal intensity and minimize Raleigh scattering.

3. Nanocomposite Photocatalytic Testing

FIG. 23 shows emission spectra of light sources used in photocatalytictesting according to one or more embodiments of the present invention,where (A) shows an emission spectrum of the ultraviolet mercury vaporlamp and (B) shows an emission spectrum of the visible natural daylightbulb used in photocatalytic testing. As shown in FIG. 23, photocatalyticreactions were performed using either UV light from a mercury vapor lamp(100 W), with a wavelength of 365 nm and an energy density of about 110W/m², or a natural daylight bulb (60 W, Halco Lighting, Pure Lite,Neodymium), with wavelengths ranging from about 380 to 850 nm and energydensity of about 31 W/m².

FIG. 24 shows CH₃CHO photo-oxidation on SWCNT-TiNS and SEG-TiNS thinfilms under UV and visible exposures according to one or moreembodiments of the present invention, where (A) shows CH₃CHOphoto-oxidation on SWCNT-TiNS thin films at different compositions underUV exposure (left) and visible exposure (right); and (B) shows CH₃CHOphoto-oxidation on SEG-TiNS thin films at different compositions underUV exposure (left) and visible exposure (right). Photo-oxidationreactions were performed in a 25 ml Teflon chamber with a quartz window1 hour after injecting 0.5 mL of acetaldehyde (CH₃CHO) vapor in the darkat room temperature. As shown in FIG. 24, a Hewlett Packard 5890 gaschromatograph with a flame ionizing detector was used to monitor theCH₃CHO concentrations.

Photo-reduction of carbon dioxide (CO₂) to methane (CH₄) was alsoperformed in a 25 ml Teflon chamber. The chamber was purged initiallywith H₂O-saturated CO₂ (99.99%) at room temperature for 1 hour. The gaschromatograph was then used to monitor the CH₄ concentrations. Five 50μL chromatography measurements were obtained to determine both theinitial CH₄ concentration and CH₄ concentration after 3 hours of eitherultraviolet or visible exposure. The photo-reduction activity reportedis the difference between the average final CH₄ concentrations andaverage initial CH₄ concentrations.

In sum, one aspect of the disclosure relates to a method of makingnon-covalently bonded carbon-titania nanocomposite thin films, whichincludes: forming a carbon-based ink; forming a TiO₂ solution;blade-coating a mechanical mixture of the carbon-based ink and thetitania solution onto a substrate; and annealing the blade-coatedsubstrate at a first temperature for a first period of time to obtainthe carbon-based titania nanocomposite thin films. In certainembodiments, the carbon-based ink may include a concentrated SEG ink, ora concentrated SWCNT ink.

The foregoing description of the exemplary embodiments of the inventionhas been presented only for the purposes of illustration and descriptionand is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to theprecise forms disclosed. Many modifications and variations are possiblein light of the above teaching.

The embodiments were chosen and described in order to explain theprinciples of the invention and their practical application so as toenable others skilled in the art to utilize the invention and variousembodiments and with various modifications as are suited to theparticular use contemplated. Alternative embodiments will becomeapparent to those skilled in the art to which the present inventionpertains without departing from its spirit and scope. Accordingly, thescope of the present invention is defined by the appended claims ratherthan the foregoing description and the exemplary embodiments describedtherein.

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What is claimed is:
 1. A dye sensitized solar cell, comprising: acounter-electrode comprising carbon-titania nanocomposite thin filmsthat are made by: forming a carbon-based ink; forming a titania (TiO₂)solution; blade-coating a mechanical mixture of the carbon-based ink andthe titania solution onto a substrate; and annealing the blade-coatedsubstrate at a first temperature for a first period of time to obtainthe carbon-based titania nanocomposite thin films.
 2. The dye sensitizedsolar cell of claim 1, wherein the first temperature is about 350-450°C., and the first period of time is about 20-45 minutes.
 3. The dyesensitized solar cell of claim 1, wherein the carbon-based ink comprisesa concentrated solvent-exfoliated graphene (SEG) ink.
 4. The dyesensitized solar cell of claim 3, wherein the forming of theconcentrated SEG ink comprises: adding a first amount of naturalgraphite to a second amount of N,N-dimethylforamide (DMF) to form afirst graphite solution; sonicating the first graphite solution at afirst frequency for a second period of time; centrifuging the sonicatedfirst graphite solution for a third period of time at a first rotationspeed to obtain a SEG supernatant; and disposing the SEG supernatant inethyl-cellulose (EC) and terpineol, and evaporating the DMF in the SEGsolution to form the concentrated SEG ink.
 5. The dye sensitized solarcell of claim 4, wherein the first amount is about 2-3 g, the secondamount is about 40-60 ml, the second period of time is about 2.5-3.5hours, the first frequency is about 30-50 kHz, the third period of timeis about 3-6 hours, and the first rotation speed is about 6000-9000 rpm.6. The dye sensitized solar cell of claim 3, wherein the forming of theconcentrated SEG ink comprises: adding natural graphite to anethyl-cellulose (EC)-ethanol solution to form a second graphitesolution; sonicating the second graphite solution at a second frequencyfor a fourth period of time; centrifuging the sonicated second graphitesolution for a fifth period of time at a second rotation speed to obtaina SEG supernatant; and disposing the SEG supernatant in terpineol toperform solvent exchange and to form the concentrated SEG ink.
 7. Thedye sensitized solar cell of claim 6, wherein the fourth period of timeis about 2.5-3.5 hours, the first frequency is about 30-50 kHz, thefifth period of time is about 3-6 hours, and the second rotation speedis about 6000-9000 rpm.
 8. The dye sensitized solar cell of claim 1,wherein the carbon-based ink comprises a concentrated single walledcarbon nanotube (SWCNT) ink.
 9. The dye sensitized solar cell of claim8, wherein the forming of the concentrated SWCNT ink comprises:dispersing SWCNT in an ethyl-cellulose (EC)-ethanol solution to form aSWCNT solution; sonicating the SWCNT solution for a sixth period oftime; and disposing the sonicated SWCNT solution in terpineol to performsolvent exchange and to obtain the concentrated SWCNT ink.
 10. The dyesensitized solar cell of claim 9, wherein the sixth period of time isabout 45-75 minutes.
 11. The dye sensitized solar cell of claim 1,wherein the titania solution comprises a titanium dioxide P25 ink. 12.The dye sensitized solar cell of claim 1, wherein the titania solutioncomprises a titania nanosheet (TiNS) ink.
 13. The dye sensitized solarcell of claim 12, wherein the forming of the TiNS ink comprises: mixinga third amount of titanium butoxide with a fourth amount of hydrofluoricacid for a seventh period of time to form a mixed solution; heating themixed solution at a second temperature for an eighth period of timeunder hydrothermal conditions; and rinsing the heated mixed solution toobtain the TiNS ink.
 14. The dye sensitized solar cell of claim 13,wherein the third amount is about 15-25 ml, the fourth amount is about2.5-3.2 ml, the seventh period of time is about 20-45 minutes, thesecond temperature is about 175-225° C., and the eighth period of timeis about 20-28 hours.
 15. A solvent-exfoliated graphene titania(SEG-TiO₂) nanocomposite thin film made by a method comprising: adding afirst amount of natural graphite to a second amount ofN,N-dimethylforamide (DMF) to form a graphite solution; sonicating thegraphite solution at a predetermined frequency for a first period oftime; centrifuging the sonicated graphite solution for a second periodof time at a predetermined speed to obtain a SEG supernatant; disposingthe SEG supernatant in ethyl-cellulose (EC) and terpineol, andevaporating the DMF in the SEG solution to form a concentrated SEG ink;forming a titania solution; blade-coating a mechanical mixture of theconcentrated SEG ink and the titania solution onto a substrate; andannealing the blade-coated substrate at a predetermined temperature fora third period of time to obtain the SEG-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin films.16. The SEG-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin film of claim 15, wherein the firstamount is about 2-3 g, and the second amount is about 40-60 ml.
 17. TheSEG-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin film of claim 15, wherein the first periodof time is about 2.5-3.5 hours; the second period of time is about 3-6hours; the third period of time is about 20-45 minutes; thepredetermined frequency is about 30-50 kHz; a predetermined speed isabout 6000-9000 rpm; and the predetermined temperature is about 350-450°C.
 18. The SEG-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin film of claim 15, wherein thetitania solution comprises a titanium dioxide P25 ink.
 19. The SEG-TiO₂nanocomposite thin film of claim 15, wherein the titania solutioncomprises a titania nanosheet (TiNS) ink.
 20. The SEG-TiO₂ nanocompositethin film of claim 19, wherein the forming of the TiNS ink comprises:mixing a third amount of titanium butoxide with a fourth amount ofhydrofluoric acid for about 20-45 minutes to form a mixed solution;heating the mixed solution at about 175-225° C. for about 20-28 hoursunder hydrothermal conditions; and rinsing the heated mixed solution toobtain the TiNS ink.
 21. The SEG-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin film of claim20, wherein the third amount is about 15-25 ml, and the fourth amount isabout 2.5-3.2 ml.
 22. A solvent-exfoliated graphene titania (SEG-TiO₂)nanocomposite thin film made by a method comprising: adding a firstamount of natural graphite to a second amount of an ethyl-cellulose(EC)-ethanol solution to form a graphite solution; sonicating thegraphite solution at a predetermined frequency for a first period oftime; centrifuging the sonicated graphite solution for a second periodof time at a predetermined speed to obtain a SEG supernatant; disposingthe SEG supernatant in terpineol to perform solvent exchange and to formthe concentrated SEG ink; forming a titania solution; blade-coating amechanical mixture of the concentrated SEG ink and the titania solutiononto a substrate; and annealing the blade-coated substrate at apredetermined temperature for a third period of time to obtain theSEG-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin films.
 23. The SEG-TiO₂ nanocomposite thinfilm of claim 22, wherein the first period of time is about 2.5-3.5hours; the second period of time is about 3-6 hours; the third period oftime is about 20-45 minutes; the predetermined frequency is about 30-50kHz; the predetermined speed is about 6000-9000 rpm; and thepredetermined temperature is about 350-450° C.
 24. The SEG-TiO₂nanocomposite thin film of claim 22, wherein the titania solutioncomprises a titanium dioxide P25 ink.
 25. The method of claim 22,wherein the titania solution comprises a titania nanosheet (TiNS) ink.26. The SEG-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin film of claim 25, wherein theforming of the TiNS ink comprises: mixing a third amount of titaniumbutoxide with a fourth amount of hydrofluoric acid for about 20-45minutes to form a mixed solution; heating the mixed solution at about175-225° C. for about 20-28 hours under hydrothermal conditions; andrinsing the heated mixed solution to obtain the TiNS ink.
 27. TheSEG-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin film of claim 26, wherein the third amountis about 15-25 ml, and the fourth amount is about 2.5-3.2 ml.
 28. Asingle walled carbon nanotube titania (SWCNT-TiO₂) nanocomposite thinfilm made by a method comprising: dispersing single walled carbonnanotubes (SWCNTs) in an ethyl-cellulose (EC)-ethanol solution to form aSWCNT solution; sonicating the SWCNT solution for a first period oftime; disposing the sonicated SWCNT solution in terpineol to performsolvent exchange and to obtain the concentrated SWCNT ink; forming atitania (TiO₂) solution; blade-coating a mechanical mixture of theconcentrated SWCNT ink and the titania solution onto a substrate; andannealing the blade-coated substrate at a predetermined temperature fora second period of time to obtain the SWCNT-TiO₂ nanocomposite thinfilms.
 29. The SWCNT-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin film of claim 28, whereinthe first period of time is about 45-75 minutes; the second period oftime is about 20-45 minutes; and the predetermined temperature is about350-450° C.
 30. The SWCNT-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin film of claim 28,wherein the titania solution comprises a titania nanosheet (TiNS) ink.31. The SWCNT-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin film of claim 30, wherein theforming of the TiNS ink comprises: mixing a first amount of titaniumbutoxide with a second amount of hydrofluoric acid for about 20-45minutes to form a mixed solution; heating the mixed solution at about175-225° C. for about 20-28 hours under hydrothermal conditions; andrinsing the heated mixed solution to obtain the TiNS ink.
 32. TheSWCNT-TiO₂ nanocomposite thin film of claim 31, wherein the first amountis about 15-25 ml, and the second amount is about 2.5-3.2 ml.